PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF FOREST FIRES IN G. MASSIGIT, G. GEDE-PANGRANGO NATIONAL
PARK, WEST JAVA.
R & D Center for
Biology-LIPI, Indonesia
Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, is
one of the Long-term Ecological Research Site in Indonesia. In the late 1997,
the fires have burnt and destroyed nearly 300 ha forest in this park, and G.
Masigit was the largest burnt area (250 ha) of nine locations of hot spot
recognized. Undergrowth vegetation got the most severe impacts. Almost
undergrowth vegetation in various location were totally burnt. However, within
three months following burning new seedlings such as Omalanthus populneus, Macaranga, Trema orientalis and Eupatorium appeared in the forest floor.The number of mycoflora recorded
in burnt forest was interestingly increased in post forest fires site.
Forest fires in G. Masigit had also affected the wild life
population and diversity. For example, the number of bird species and the
number of soil insects in burnt forest was significantly reduced. The forest
fires had also great impact on soil, such as on soil organic contents, bulk
density, colour, consistency, permeability and the activity of soil
microorganisms.
INTRODUCTION
Gunung
Gede Pangrango National Park, is one of the Long-term Ecological Research Site
in Indonesia. In the late 1997, the fires have burnt and destroyed nearly 300
ha forest in this park. They were nine locations of hot spot, i.e., Gunung Sela
(32 ha) was burnt in September 13 ; G. Pangrango (0.1 ha) burnt in September
22; G. Masigit (250 ha) burnt in September 26; Alun-Alun Suryakencana (11 ha)
burnt in October 27; Gegerbentang (one ha) burnt in November 1; Arcamanik (3.5
ha) burnt in November 1; Perum Perhutani (5 ha) burnt in October 13; Bale
Kambang ( 5 ha) burnt in November
1; and Golf course (0.1 ha) burnt in September 29. Six locations located in the
core area of the Gede pangrango National Park, and the other three locations
i.e., Perum Perhutani, Bale Kambang and Golf Course are in adjacent of park
boundary.
It
is reported that the cause of forest fires related to the human error, long dry
season, strong wind and low humidity. The effects of long dry season were the
dryness of undergrowth species dominated by ferns. The dominant species of
ferns such as Dryopteris spp, Nephrolepis , Athyrium, Pteris and Cyclosorus
commonly have shallow roots system. Those species therefore more succeptible to
the long dry conditions.
Forest
fires in late 1997 in G.Gede Pangrango National Park have affected the
biodiversity of the reserve. Results of preliminary observation are presented
in this paper.
IMPACT ON VEGETATION
Fire
is a natural component of many forest ecosystems, where it plays an important
role in ecology. However, in other cases, fire is also destructive and cause
alteration to vegetation. Burning in a fire-dependent forest will have little
permanent impacts on vegetation. However, burning in forest not adapted to fire
can caused long term or permanent changes. At worst, forests can be totally
lost and replaced by other vegetation. For example repeated burnings in
Kalimantan have created large areas of unproductive alang-alang grassland in place
of the original dipterocarp forest.
Based
upon the observation in the field shows that not all burnt trees in some
locations were killed. It suggests that the impact of forest fires much depend
upon the local conditions such as topography, undergrowth vegetation and
thickness and dryness of litter falls, temperature and the wind. Therefore the
effects of fire on the vegetation are also different.
Undergrowth
vegetation got the most severe impacts. Almost undergrowth vegetation in
various location were totally burnt. However, within three months following
burning new seedlings such as Omalanthus
populneus, Macaranga, Trema orientalis and Eupatorium appeared in
the forest floor. Abdulhadi et al. (1994) reported that those
species were found as the component of seed bank in a permanent plot this
forest. Thus, it is believed that
those seedlings might be recruited from seed bank or seed rain.
Fires mostly burnt part of
root in the soil surface and part of stem (even in some places up to the
crown), with the black dark color. Trees with the thick bark usually
demonstrated the dark color outside but not across to the stem.
Forest fires have effected on the flora and fauna diversity in the forest. However, it is difficult to measure precisely the impact of fires on flora and fauna. Despite the impact is distributed widely and unevenly, it is not felt for months or years and the ultimate impact is depend upon a chain of intermediate evens (Schweithelm 1998).
There are many plant species which are not resistant
to fires, so the loss of such species cannot be prevented. The importance of
long-term permanent plot in assessing of the species loss due to forest fires
were shown from the permanent plot of mixed Dipterocarp forest in Wanariset,
Samboja and Lempake, Samarinda, East Kalimantan. Mixed Dipterocarp forest at the Wanariset, which is known as one
of the richest tree species of tropical forests (Kartawinata et al. 1981,
Whitmore, 1984). After 1983 and 1998 forest fires, about 90% of 240 tree species in the 1.6 ha research
permanent plot died, while in the
same forest type at Lempake only about 20% of species
(Bratawinata pers.com) were still found alive in the research plot after fires.
Yeager (997a) eported that a team who studied in peat swamp forest at Tanjung
Putting National Park, Central Kalimantan, found that the average number of
tree species declined from 60 per hectare in unburnt areas to fewer than 15
after burning. The total number of trees that survived after burnt is highly
correlated with the degree of prior disturbance, and fires in the peat swamp
forest can travel below the ground surface killing trees by destroying their
root systems.
The strategy of plant species to exist
is not always in the form of mature plant, but they occur as viable seeds stored in the soil which is well
known as seed bank. The population
of seed bank is often much higher than the population of growing plant,
although seed bank in a rain forest is relatively lower than other vegetation
types such as savana, grassland, slerophyll forest etc. The occurrence of soil seed bank is well
recognized, and it is considered as an important in initiating of recovery forest following disturbance.
However,
soil heating significantly reduced the number of species and seeds that remained
viable in the seed bank. Various ecological studies regarding the effects of a
brief period of high rain forest soil temperature on the seed bank was
dramatic. Hopkins & Graham (1984) found only 50% of the species and seeds
were killed at 60¡ÆC
. In Costa Rica Ewel ( 1981) found
27% of the species and 52% of seeds were killed in a slash burn while
Brinkman & Vieira (1971) found that 66% of the seeds in the top of 5 cm
surface soils were killed following burning. Even Abdulhadi (1992) reported
that 83% of the species and 90% of all seeds were killed by one hour heating at
60¡ÆC.
Reductions
in the size of seed banks following soil heating indicate the loss of species
occur in the seed bank. It may depend on the composition of that seed since
survival rate differ from species to species, and it must also depend on the
extent to which seed are distributed at different depths in the soil.
Interestingly,
a preliminary survey on the impact of forest fires on G. Masigit, G.Gede
Pangrango National Park shows increasing number of mycoflora recorded in burnt
forest. As shown in Table 4, a total of 18 species of mushroom were recorded in
burnt forest G. Masigit, G.Gede Pangrango National Park. Thirteen of 18
mushroom species (72,2%) were found growing in the burnt trees, and the other five species (27,8%)
found in bare and mossy soil. Pholiota
carbonaria, Scutelinia trechispora and Flammulina
velutipes were noticed as the most common mushroom found in burnt forest ,
but not found in unburnt forest nearby. In unburnt forest nearby, only 10
species were recorded. Polyporus sp.
is the only species found in both burnt and unburnt forest.
The occurrence of above three common species in burnt forest area to some extent allied to the highly carbon content in the burnt area, since the humidity in burnt and burnt forest was relatively the same. The fact, those species were not found in unburnt forest nearby, and Pholiota carbonaria well known as the post fire species. The similar feature was also shown by the soil fungi (Table 5)
Table 4. List of mushrooms recorded in burnt forest of G. Masigit, G.Gede Pangrango National Park
|
Unburnt |
Burnt |
Bisporella sp. |
Dead trees |
Burnt trees |
Coprinus sp. |
Soil |
- |
Crepidotussp. |
Trees |
- |
Ganoderma lucidum |
Trees |
- |
Ganoderma sp. |
Trees |
- |
Hygrocibe punicea |
Soil |
- |
Hypoxylon fragiforme |
- |
Burnt trees |
Marasmius sp. |
Dead trees |
- |
Mycena sp. |
Soil |
- |
Polyporus sp. |
Trees |
Burnt trees |
Xylaria sp. |
- |
Burnt trees |
Flammulina velutipes |
- |
Burnt trees |
Phaehelotium subcarneum |
- |
Soil |
Pholiota carbonaria |
- |
Soil |
Scutelinia trechispora |
- |
Mossy soil |
Schizophyllum commun e |
- |
Burnt trees |
Thelephora terrestris |
- |
Soil |
Myxomycetes 1 |
- |
Burnt trees |
Myxomycetes 2 |
- |
Burnt trees |
Myxomycetes 2 |
- |
Burnt trees |
Auricularia auricula |
- |
Burnt trees |
Auricularia sp. |
- |
Burnt trees |
Coprinus picaceus |
- |
Soil |
Coprinus sp. |
- |
Soil |
Daldinia concentrica |
- |
Burnt trees |
Ramaria sp. |
Dead trees |
- |
Table 5. List of soil fungi recorded in burnt and unburnt forest of G. Masigit, G.Gede Pangrango National Park.
SPECIES |
UNBURNT |
BURNT |
Rhizopus stolonifer |
- |
** |
Trichoderma sp. |
- |
*** |
Aspergillus niger |
** |
* |
Monascus ruber |
- |
* |
Mucor sp. |
** |
* |
Penicillium sp. |
- |
* |
Rhizopus sp. |
** |
* |
Trichoderma viride |
** |
* |
Neurospora sitophila |
- |
** |
Acremonium sp. |
- |
*** |
Botrytis sp. |
- |
* |
Gliocladium sp. |
- |
* |
Trichoderma koningii |
** |
- |
IMPACT
OF FOREST FIRES ON WILDLIFE
As illustrated by many case studies, forest fires can have disastrous impacts on many species of wildlife. It is difficult to document the effects of fires in the tropical rain forest animals, but many case studies showed the disastrous impacts on many wildlife species. Boer (1989) and Yeager (1997b) point out that wildlife may be killed directly by the heat and smoke of fires or may subsequently weaken and die from lack of food and water or habitat loss. Small, slow moving animals are most likely to be killed outright by fires. Animal with very specific food, habitat, shelter, or climate requirements are most at risk during the immediate post-fire period. Individuals of territorial species fleeing to unburned areas often encounter aggression from residents, and may be killed or injured. The lost of key organism (key stone species), such as pollinators, decomposers and fruit trees can significantly affect the recovery of the forest ecosystem (Yeager 1997b). In the months and years after a fire, the changing composition of vegetation and fruits in a recovering forest provide alternate, or even superior food sources for some animals and insects, sometimes leading to dramatic increases in their population after fires, and thereby changing the faunal composition of the forest.
The
escaping animals from the habitat by the fire apparently were captured by the
villagers and sold in the markets. These conditions appeared because the people
experienced the economic crisis that hit Indonesia. Forest fires that drive
away the animals from the forest appears had stimulate people to trade wildlife
to improve their economic conditions.
Fires
in East- and Central Kalimantan had threatened the orangutan existence
which can be eliminated or
destroyed from Kalimantan .
Apparently there are no chance for the orangutan to survive; even there is a presumption
that the orangutan will be finished in the next 100 years . About 366 orangutan
were returned to nature in Wanariset, and after the fires only 19 orangutan
were found. In the meantime Wanariset Rehabilitation Center had received more
than 140 orangutan for being
checked-up their health condition
and recovered after fires. While in East Kalimantan about 120 old orangutan and 60 juveniles were supposed dead
from fires. The protected forest of Sungai Wain in East Kalimantan, which was
home of 100 rehabilitated orangutan was also damaged by fires. The fate of
those orangutan in that forest is not known.
The
Kutai National Park was attacked
by great fire, which had a great effect on the life of the flora and fauna in
it. About 50.000 ha of 198.000 ha Kutai National Park were burnt down by fires, whereas this national park was
important habitat of around 2000 orangutans and a number of
orangutan had been driven away from the habitat for looking their food. The
life of orangutan group is not stable and the number decreasing compared to
those before the fires. The decrease of their juveniles and elder orangutans is
about 38% in each group. Two primitive primates, western tarsiers (Tarcius bancanus) and slow loris (Nycticebus coucany) were extremely
reduced in number as of 1986.
Kalimantan
which is home for at least 600 bird species with unique characteristics and
even endemic, will become a life and death battle for various bird species due
to loss of their good habitat. As result of the great fires, there will not be
any fruits in the near future, and it means there will be food shortage for the
birds. Birds are found in weak condition and difficult to breathe because of
haze. Birds which have been driven from their habitat become disoriented,
flying without any direction, even crashed themselves on the windows of the
houses nearby.
The
preliminary survey of forest fire impacts in G.Gede Pangrango National Park
suggest
that fire has indeed reduced species diversity and species richness of forests,
although the community evenness did not seem to be affected, and followed a
rule of thumb for community evenness of tropical forest
bird, i.e. many species with small population and an even distribution of
individuals amongst species (Table 6). There were 15 species
not-shared by the two forests, of which seven were found in bumt forests but
not in unbumt forests, and they were Ictinaetus
malayensis, Accipiter gularis, Aerodramus brevirostris, Psaltria exilis,
Pteruthius flaviscapis, Cochoa azurea, and Cettia vulcania. Such species as Ictinaetus malayensis, Accipiler gularis, and Aerodramus brevirostris would be difficult to record in unbumt
forests since they would be flying over the canopy, and even when perched (i.e.
Ictinaetus malayensis and Accipiter gularis) their very existence
would be secretive, while Aerodramus
brevirostris would prefer open areas for flying and foraging for flying
insects.
On the other hand, the other
eight species were only found in unbumt forests, i.e. Megalaima corvina, Megalaima armillaris, Pomatorhinus montanus, Pneopyga
pursilla, Brachypteryx montana, Orthotomus cuculatus, Ficedula hyperythra, and Lopozosterops javanieus. These species
would not be found in open areas such as those in burnt forests because they
existence would depend on the abundance of forests vegetation. For example, Megalaima corvina and Megalaima armillaris need tall trees
with dense leaves for perching, singing, and foraging which could not be found
in burnt forests. While Pomatorhinus
montanus, Pneopyga pusilla, Brachypteryx montana, Orthotomus cuculatus, Ficedula hyperythra, and Lopozosterops javanicus need dense ground
vegetation or bushes and scrubs for their living activities.
Forest
fires in G. Masigit had also affected the population of soil insects. The
number of soil insects in burnt forest is significantly reduced (Table 7).
Direct
effect of forest fires is estimated to have killed all species of small snake
lizards, and turtles, because of
their disability to escape from fires. Amphibian species which are able to jump
on trees were also killed. Even iguana species was unable to escape from fires
although they can move fast. Crocodiles and several other species which can live in deep water, such as
lake and big rivers have chances
to survive.
Long
term effects of forest fires on the existence of amphibians and reptiles are especially on their
damaged habitat, loss of place to
lay eggs, water contamination, and
decrease in food resources .
Forest lizards were completely absent from burned areas of Bukit Barisan
Selatan National Park one month after the 1997 fires, indicating that reptile
mortality may have been substantial (O¡¯Brien et al 1998). No lizards were found
in open burned peat swamp in Central Kalimantan during a rapid WWF Indonesian
survey immediately after the 1997 fires, but some snakes were found in nearby
areas (Lilley 1998). Three land turtle species known to inhabit the area were
not observed in burn and unburn areas. Frogs and tadpoles were still observed
in the survey areas.
Forest
fires were have apparently affected the soil. Based on the early observation on
the newly established post forest fires plot indicated that the forest fires
changed the soil organic contents, consistency and the activities of soil
organisms. The total nitrogen of the was much lower in the burnt soil, in
contrast the Natrium content was vice versa. The soil permeability of burnt
andisol soil was very high (107
cm/hour). This kondition was supported by the soil bulk density which less than
one, high porosity, and this can be easily creating the land slide in the
steepy study site. During the
observation the activities of soil micro organisms such as earth worms,
ants etc., were not shown in the
burnt soil.
The
preliminary study of the long term impact of forest fires in G. Pangrango
National Park was sponsored by the Indonesian MAB –UNESCO Jakarta, to
established new permanent plot on post forest fires site in G. Massigit.
Table 6 . Community
structures of bird in bumt and unbumt forests in G.Gede Pangrango National Park
Species |
Unburnt |
Burnt |
Ictinaetus malayensis Aerodramus brevirostris Harpactes reinwardtii Megalaima corvina Megalaima armillaris Pericrocotus miniatus Dicrurus remifer Psaltria exilis Parus major Sitta azurea Pomatorhinus montanus Pnoepyga pusilla Brachypteryx montana Myophoneus glaucinus Turdus poliocephalus Phylloscopus trivirgatus Orthotomus cuculatus Cettia vulcania Ficedula hyperythra Ficedula westermanni Culicicapa ceylonesis Rhipidura phoenicura Aethopyga eximia Lopozosterops javanicus
The Shannon diversity index Evenness Number of species |
0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 22.00 1.00 0.00 15.00 5.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 21.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 6.00 15.00 9.00 9.00 2.00 1.06 0.81 20 |
2.00 5.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 12.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.00 1.00 23.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 14.00 5.00 2.00 7.00 0.00 0.99 0.85 15 |
Table
7. Number of Insect recorded in G.
Masigit
|
Faeces |
Chiken Meat |
||
|
Unburnt |
Burnt |
Unburnt |
Burnt |
Predator |
56 |
34 |
211 |
76 |
Scavenger |
67 |
44 |
233 |
63 |
Phyto-phagus |
1 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
Decomposer |
67 |
12 |
36 |
3 |
Wood-borer |
2 |
2 |
- |
- |
Parasitoid |
14 |
3 |
13 |
5 |
Unknown |
0 |
4 |
0 |
3 |
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